Journal: Mucosal Immunology

Article Title: Mucosal IL-36 is a defining feature of severe paediatric bronchiolitis

doi: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2026.01.012

Figure Lengend Snippet: IL-36 is elevated in severe bronchiolitis only and is positively correlated with the length of hospitalisation. A) Expression of IL36A , IL36B , and IL36G in moderate (n = 21) and severe (n = 21) bronchiolitis , in RNA isolated from NPAs, and measured by NanoString. B) IL-36 protein levels in nasopharyngeal aspirates from either moderate ( n = 48) or severe ( n = 40) bronchiolitis. C) IL-36 protein levels in nasopharyngeal aspirates (RSV + group) from either moderate (n = 20) or severe (n = 20) RSV infection. D) Protein concentrations of IL-36α in nasosorption samples from healthy controls (grey squares; n = 15), moderate bronchiolitis (blue circles; n = 13) or severe bronchiolitis (red triangles; n = 36). E) Gene expression of IL36A was measured in blood using bulk transcriptomics in healthy infants ( n = 56), or infants with mild ( n = 72), moderate ( n = 92) or severe ( n = 48) RSV infection ( https://doi.org/10.1002/ctm2.1507) . (F) Spearman’s non-parametric correlation and simple linear regression between IL and 36α concentration and the length of hospitalisation. (G) Heatmap of Z-scores of 13 protein mediators measured in NPAs. Both rows and columns were split by K-means clustering. Patients are annotated with peak severity (blue = moderate, red = severe), age, and length of hospital stay (LOS). In panel A the line at y = 5.36 represents the threshold for gene expression after background thresholding, A chi-squared test in panel A determined significant increase in expression above the background threshold, and Mann-Whitney test determined significance between severe and moderate infection in panels A–C. * = P < 0.05; ** = P < 0.01; *** = P < 0.001; **** = P < 0.001. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Article Snippet: Protein levels of IL-36α/IL-1F6 (R&D Systems; #DY1078-05), IL-36γ/IL-1F9 (Adipogen Life Sciences; #AG-46B-0010), and CXCL10/IP-10 (R&D Systems; #DY266) were measured using commercial ELISA kits.

Techniques: Expressing, Isolation, Infection, Gene Expression, Transcriptomics, Concentration Assay, MANN-WHITNEY

Journal: Mucosal Immunology

Article Title: Mucosal IL-36 is a defining feature of severe paediatric bronchiolitis

doi: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2026.01.012

Figure Lengend Snippet: Neutrophils trigger the release of mucosal IL-36α in vitro . Differential gene expression analysis in human nasal epithelial cell (HNEC) cultures after exposure to A) LPS relative to mock, B) rIL-17A relative to mock, or C) NPA supernatants relative to mock. Genes are coloured depending on whether they were significantly upregulated (red) or downregulated (blue), or not significant (grey) based on the Log 2 fold change and adjusted P values after FDR correction. The cut-off values for the log2 fold change and Benjamini-Yekutieli FDR adjusted P values are 1 and 0.05, respectively. To determine the effect of neutrophils on RSV replication and IL-36 release, inverted HNECs were cultured at air–liquid interface and infected with RSV for 4 h or 24 h, with or without the addition of basolateral neutrophils or recombinant IL-36. D) RSV was measured by RT-qPCR at 4 h or 24 h post-infection of HNECs in culture lysates, in the absence or presence of basolateral neutrophils (for the final 4 h of the infection) or recombinant IL-36. E) IL-36α concentration in the apical washes of HNECs 24 h after infection with RSV, in the absence or presence of basolateral neutrophils. Neutrophils were added either at the time of infection, or 20 h after infection was initiated. In panels D and E, dots are coloured based on HNEC donor (mean of technical duplicates, n = 3) alongside the median of all donors (black line). Statistical significance in panels D and E were measured using ANOVA with Tukey’s correction for multiple comparisons. * = P < 0.05. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Article Snippet: Protein levels of IL-36α/IL-1F6 (R&D Systems; #DY1078-05), IL-36γ/IL-1F9 (Adipogen Life Sciences; #AG-46B-0010), and CXCL10/IP-10 (R&D Systems; #DY266) were measured using commercial ELISA kits.

Techniques: In Vitro, Gene Expression, Cell Culture, Infection, Recombinant, Quantitative RT-PCR, Concentration Assay